TY - JOUR
T1 - Relationships between direct predation and risk effects
AU - Creel, Scott
AU - Christianson, David
N1 - Funding Information:
John Winnie and Stewart Liley made many important contributions to our thinking on these issues in the course of our research on wolves and elk. This work was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation Animal Behavior Program. Jim Estes and three anonymous referees made many helpful suggestions on the manuscript.
PY - 2008/4
Y1 - 2008/4
N2 - Risk effects arise when prey alter their behavior in response to predators, and these responses carry costs. Empirical studies have found that risk effects can be large. Nonetheless, studies of predation in vertebrate conservation and management usually consider only direct predation. Given the ubiquity and strength of behavioral responses to predators by vertebrate prey, it is not safe to assume that risk effects on dynamics can be ignored. Risk effects can be larger than direct effects. Risk effects can exist even when the direct rate of predation is zero. Risk effects and direct effects do not necessarily change in parallel. When risk effects reduce reproduction rather than survival, they are easily mistaken for limitation by food supply.
AB - Risk effects arise when prey alter their behavior in response to predators, and these responses carry costs. Empirical studies have found that risk effects can be large. Nonetheless, studies of predation in vertebrate conservation and management usually consider only direct predation. Given the ubiquity and strength of behavioral responses to predators by vertebrate prey, it is not safe to assume that risk effects on dynamics can be ignored. Risk effects can be larger than direct effects. Risk effects can exist even when the direct rate of predation is zero. Risk effects and direct effects do not necessarily change in parallel. When risk effects reduce reproduction rather than survival, they are easily mistaken for limitation by food supply.
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U2 - 10.1016/j.tree.2007.12.004
DO - 10.1016/j.tree.2007.12.004
M3 - Article
C2 - 18308423
AN - SCOPUS:40849137417
SN - 0169-5347
VL - 23
SP - 194
EP - 201
JO - Trends in Ecology and Evolution
JF - Trends in Ecology and Evolution
IS - 4
ER -