Relationships between direct predation and risk effects

Scott Creel, David Christianson

Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review

916 Scopus citations

Abstract

Risk effects arise when prey alter their behavior in response to predators, and these responses carry costs. Empirical studies have found that risk effects can be large. Nonetheless, studies of predation in vertebrate conservation and management usually consider only direct predation. Given the ubiquity and strength of behavioral responses to predators by vertebrate prey, it is not safe to assume that risk effects on dynamics can be ignored. Risk effects can be larger than direct effects. Risk effects can exist even when the direct rate of predation is zero. Risk effects and direct effects do not necessarily change in parallel. When risk effects reduce reproduction rather than survival, they are easily mistaken for limitation by food supply.

Original languageEnglish (US)
Pages (from-to)194-201
Number of pages8
JournalTrends in Ecology and Evolution
Volume23
Issue number4
DOIs
StatePublished - Apr 2008

ASJC Scopus subject areas

  • Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics

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