From ores to metals

The first steps in the production of a metal object are to extract the ore from the mine, process the ore for smelting, and then eventually smelt the ore into metal. As fundamental as these steps may be, they are also the least studied in ancient metallurgical research, as finished metal artifacts (i.e., the end result of the entire process) are usually more interesting to archaeologists than bits of ore or slag. However, the study of the earlier stages is often more enlightening on the social structures of metallurgical groups, on the choices made by ancient metal workers, and more generally about human engagement with ores and metals. In this chapter, the first steps of the metallurgical process are outlined and discussed, with an eye towards the sorts of anthropological and archaeological research questions that can be asked by both archaeologists and archaeometallurgists of ores, mines, furnaces, slag, etc.