Beyond Toddlerhood: Rates of Impairment, Strengths, and Challenges in the Communication Outcomes of Former Late Talkers

Purpose: In this follow-up study, we examined outcomes of children previouidentified as late talkers in toddlerhood. Our goals included determining prevalence of language/literacy disorders in our sample and describing cdren’s outcomes related to oral language, literacy, cognition, and speech. Method: We administered a battery of behavioral measures to 40 Englispeaking children ages 3–10 years. We used psychometrically sound tests identify language/literacy disorders and then compared children with a disorto those without on our other measures. Results: Of the children we could test with confidence, 19 of 36 (52.8%) sented with a language/literacy disorder based on the Structured PhotograpExpressive Language Test–Preschool, Second Edition or the Test of IntegratLanguage and Literacy Skills Identification Core Score. When we included cdren with substantially delayed or disordered speech, the total number of dren with speech difficulties or a language/literacy impairment was 22 39 (56.4%). Bayesian independent-samples t tests showed compelling evidenthat those without a language/literacy disorder outperformed those with a disder on vocabulary, phonemic awareness, spelling, reading comprehensioreading fluency, articulation, and a working memory forward cognitive measuThere was no compelling evidence for group differences on listening comphension, writing, nonverbal intelligence, and cognitive measures of attention aworking memory backward. Conclusion: Using sound diagnostic tests, rates of language/literacy disordein our sample of former late talkers were higher than past findings in the ture, highlighting the seriousness of late talking as a red flag for future difties in advanced oral language and literacy skills.